SONSINO'S BLOG: HOW MANY BOOKS IN THE BIBLE? WHOSE BIBLE?

SONSINO'S BLOG: HOW MANY BOOKS IN THE BIBLE? WHOSE BIBLE?:   Rabbi Rifat Sonsino, Ph.D When someone, looking for an authoritarian source, tells you, “It is written in the Bible, “ you should ask, w...

HOW MANY BOOKS IN THE BIBLE? WHOSE BIBLE?

 Rabbi Rifat Sonsino, Ph.D

When someone, looking for an authoritarian source, tells you, “It is written in the Bible, “ you should ask, whose Bible?

Bibles are different; some have more texts than others.

The Samaritan Bible (c.1^st cent CE) has only the Pentateuch, namely, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy. It is also quite different from the Pentateuch in the Hebrew Bible we have today.

Josephus, the Jewish historian, (1^st cent. CE), mentions only 22 books in the Bible  (See. Against Apion I, 37-43), but does not identify them. 2 Esdras 14:45, an apocryphal book written around 1 or 2 cent. CE, mentions 24 books, but does not list them.

According to Jewish (rabbinic) tradition the Hebrew Bible has 24 books, and is divided into three sections: Pentateuch (5 books), Prophets (8 books), and Writings (11 books) (See discussion in the Talmud, BB14 b/15a and Taanit 8a; also Midrash Rabba to Numbers 7, in 14:18). Yet, the Jewish Publication Societies’ Hebrew and English Bible, contains 39 books. (Here, some books are listed separately, and not combined as in the traditional Hebrew Bibles). It is estimated that the Pentateuch was canonized by 400 BCE, the Prophets by 200 BCE and the Writings by 90 CE (See, The Anchor Bible Dict. I , p. 841). The ancient Rabbis , who , according to tradition, finally closed the canon of the Hebrew Bible at the end of the 1sr cent CE in the city of Yavneh, had serious concerns about the inclusion of a number of books, such as Esther and Ecclesiastes, but finally accepted them as holy scriptures (See m Yad 3:5).

The Protestant Bible has 66 books: 39 for the “Old Testament” (a Christian term) and 27 for the New Testament. The Catholic Bible, on the other hand, has 73 books: 46 for the Old Testament and 27 for the New Testament. There are a number of books called Apocryphal Books, such as Tobit, Judith, I and II Maccabees, written between 400 BCE and 1 cent. CE, that are not part of the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant Bible, but are included in the Catholic Bible.

It is in the Bible, you say! Whose Bible?

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WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM NOAH AND THE ARK?

 Rabbi Rifat Sonsino, Ph.D

Noah and the Ark is one of the most popular myths in the ancient Western world. The story of the Flood  is told in the Hebrew Bible, in the Book of Genesis (ch 6-9),  but it is based on a variety of similar stories found in the greater Ancient Near East (ANE). We now have a Sumerian, two Akkadian, a Hittite, and even a Hurrian version of this fascinating story.

The basic outline of the legend is this: at the beginning of time, God told Noah about the upcoming destruction of the world. Noah then built an ark and brought in his immediate family, a number of animals and food. They survived the devastating flood. The ark landed on a mountain, and God made a covenant with Noah, promising not to destroy the universe in the future.

Even though some people take this story literally, I believe this is not history but a myth. The miraculous aspect of the episode, including the placing of all the animals in one boat, and the destruction of all humanity except for one couple  strain the credulity of any critical mind. Furthermore, there are some differences between the biblical version and the myths found in other cultures of the ANE. Here are some:

1.     In the Bible, only one god decrees the Flood. In the others, we have a multiplicity of gods.

2.     In the Bible, the flood comes because of the depravity of the human race. In the others, it is not so clear. In the Atrahasis Epic, which is one of the two Akkadian texts, the rationale is that people are so noisy that the god Enlil cannot sleep!!

3.     In the Bible, Noah is chosen because he is deemed righteous. In the others, the hero’s character is irrelevant.

4.     In the Bible, Noah brings into the ark his immediate family. In the others, the hero brings in even different kinds of crafts people.

5.     In the Bible, the ark has  three stories and numerous cells. In the others, the ark is divided into six decks.

Obviously, there was a wide-range belief circulating in the entire region of the ANE that in ancient times  there was a devastating flood that caused great damage.

Is there a message attached to the myth? It is not clear. The Rabbis, however, have many suggestions. According to one of the commentators, Noah should be praised for taking care of everyone in the ark. He did not sleep day or night “occupied as he was  with feeding the creatures that were with him” ( The Book of Legends, p. 28). I would broaden the message, and based on the biblical claim that in Noah’s days, “the earth was filled with lawlessness” (hamas in Hebrew),   I would say that the editors of the Bible wanted to stress the need to avoid corruption in society and instead to pursue righteousness and wholeness in life.

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THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE BOOK OF ESTHER

 Rabbi Rifat Sonsino, Ph.D

When we read a literary text today, we tend to view it from our own modern perspective. Take, for example, the case of The Book of Esther in the Hebrew Bible. When the text says, “And King Ahasuerus said to Queen Esther and Mordecai” (8:7), a contemporary reader might assume that he must have sent them a text message!!! As we would today.

The Book of Esther has gone through many levels of interpretation over the centuries. The text is colorful. It is the raison d'être of the festival of Purim. The Five Books of Moses does not mention it among the holy days. It does not include any clear reference to God. Though fasting is mentioned, no one in the text is seen praying. This is the only book not found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, maybe because the sect that lived in Qumran did not celebrate Purim.

The Book of Esther celebrates the heroism of the beautiful Queen Esther and her adoptive cousin Mordecai living in Persia. The main motif is how Esther captured the heart of the king of Ahasuerus  through her charm , and saved her people from the vile machinations of the evil Haman on a day to be selected through the casting of lots (purim, in Hebrew). This is not history but a historical novel, even a farce, reflecting the tenuous life of the Jews in the diaspora. It was probably written sometime between 400 and 300 BCE.

Even after it became part of the Hebrew Scriptures, early translations, bothered by the lack of its religious tone, inserted texts to make up for it. For example, the LXX, the Greek translation of the Bible, created in the 3/2 cent. BCE, added a long prayer to Est. 4: 17, that concluded with “So Mordecai went and did all that Esther commanded him”. ( For the full English text of Mordecai and Esther’s prayers in the LXX, see The Jerusalem Bible, p. 561).

The ancient Rabbis had the same problem. They could not believe that God would be absent from any holy text, so they read into the text a reference to God. When Mordecai said to Esther (4:14): “if you keep silent in this crisis, relief and deliverance will come to the Jews from another quarter.” For the Rabbis, “another quarter” (mimakom aher), had to be God! (See, Ibn Ezra, ad loc).  The Jewish historian Josephus (1^st cent. CE)  says the same thing. (See, Antiq. XI, 6/7). Similarly, the Rabbis were bothered by the fact that the study of Torah was not mentioned in the book. So, they said, “Just as Moses taught Torah to the Israelites, so did Mordecai” (Esther Rabba 5:6/2). Also , noting that prayers were not mentioned in the book, they added a long one to Esther’s statement in 4:15 (Esther Rabba, 8:7).

But that is not what the text says! We need to read classical texts , as much as possible, from the perspective of its author in order to give justice to his/her message.

By the way, at our Monday morning study group, we, a group of retired Rabbis,  just completed the study of Esther Rabba, a Rabbinic Midrash of Esther that was created in the Galilee around 500 CE. 

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NO MORE PROPHETS

Rabbi Rifat Sonsino, Ph.D.

A prophet is more than a forecaster of future events. Technically speaking , in the Hebrew Bible, a prophet ( “navi”), is a mouthpiece of God. Prophets claimed they spoke in the name of God. And people around them believed it. The prophet Jeremiah makes a distinction between true and false prophets. According to him, false prophets “speak from their own minds, not from the mouth of the Lord” (23: 16).

Prophecy is well known in the Ancient Near East (ANE). In various Akkadian texts they are known, among others,  as mahhu (“ecstatic”), apilu (“answerer”), assinu (“cultic functionary”), or nabu (“ diviner”, parallel to the Hebrew term for prophet, navi).

Both in the ANE and specifically in ancient Israel, there were male and female prophets. The Hebrew Bible recognizes these female prophets: Miriam, the sister of Moses and Aaron (Ex.15:19), Deborah , also a judge, (Judg.4:4), Huldah (II K 22: 14), and an unnamed woman simply known as “a prophetess” in the book of Isaiah (8:3), probably, his wife. In Judaism , the prophet par excellence is Moses (Deut.18:18). Rabbis add, Sarah, Hannah, Abigayil, and Esther (b. Megillah, 14a). The last prophet in the Hebrew Bible is Malachi, (“my messenger”). We don’t know his real name.  Some claim that was indeed his name; others suggest it was Ezra or even Mordecai. He lived in the 5^th cent. BCE in the re-settled Judea when the second temple was rebuilt.

The New Testament knows of both male (for example, Agabus, Acts 11: 29) and female prophets (for example,  Anna, Luke 2:36-38). Some Christians  attribute prophetic roles to many individuals, including, Quintilla (3^rd cent CE), Joan of Arc (15^th cent.), and George Smith (19^th cent.). In Islam, only males are considered prophets, and Muhammad is viewed as the last one, “the seal of the prophets” (Sura 33:40). Judaism does not recognize Jesus or Mohammad as prophets.

Today, it is difficult to call anyone a prophet, for, not too many people believe a human being can be a mouthpiece of God. We can invoke God in our prayers and our deeds but beware of the person who claims he/she can speak in the name of God.

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THE LAST KING OF JUDAH; THE SIN OF ZEDEKIAH

 Rabbi Rifat Sonsino, Ph.D

After the death of king Solomon, the Israelite kingdom split into two: Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The last king of Israel was Hoshea (732-724 BCE); the last king of Judah was Zedekiah (597-687/6 BCE). What do we know about him?

The Hebrew Bible tells us that Zedekiah, king Josiah’s youngest son, was 21 years old when he became a king, and reigned for 11 years in Jerusalem ( II K 24: 18). He was made king by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar (605/4-562 BCE) after king Jehoiachin, Zedekiah’s predecessor, was taken prisoner to Babylonia.

In the 9^th year of his reign, in 588 BCE, Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon by joining a coalition of coastal kings.  Nebuchadnezzar then came  and besieged the city of Jerusalem for two years. When the Egyptian king Apries (the Bible calls him Hophra, Jer. 44:30) started to move east, the Babylonian king lifted the siege, faced the Egyptians and defeated them. After that Nebuchadnezzar came back and besieged Jerusalem again. This time, the city and the Temple within it were destroyed and the majority of the people were exiled to Babylon  (586 BCE).  King Zedekiah was captured, blinded, and was taken to Babylon as a prisoner.

Not too much is known about Zedekiah as a person. The Rabbis say he suffered from a “lack of sense” (Lam R 1:16). He comes across as a weak individual and a sinner who is pressured by two opposing forces: on the one hand, the prophet Jeremiah who kept telling him to acknowledge the Babylonians as victors by submitting to their yoke, and,  on the other, the military leaders and courtiers  who advised him to stand firm against Nebuchadnezzar. But, what was his sin? We are told that Jerusalem was destroyed because “he did what was displeasing to the Lord” (II K 24:19). The Book of Chronicles adds, “because he did not humble himself before the prophet Jeremiah” (II Chr. 36:12). But the nature of his sin is not clearly indicated.

A possible explanation for his sin comes from the writings attributed to the prophet Jeremiah ( see Jer. 34) regarding the freeing of the slaves. It appears that during the Babylonian siege, king Zedekiah had made a covenant with the people in Jerusalem to free the slaves, both male and female, as mandated by biblical law (Ex. 21: 2; cf. Deut. 15:12-18), most likely to make them join the rebellion as free individuals against the enemies, but after Nebuchadnezzar lifted the siege to battle the Egyptians, the Judean free men turned around and re-enslaved their former slaves. This breach of covenant was used to justify the outcome of the rebellion that eventually saw the destruction of Jerusalem. The Bible states that the Judeans, among other sins,  “ followed the abominable practices of the (foreign) nations.”( II Chr. 36:14).  So, God, “brought the king of the Chaldeans upon them” (II Chr. 36:17).

In reality, I believe, the city of Jerusalem fell not because the Judeans behaved unethically or sinfully (which they did) but because the Babylonians were militarily stronger than the Israelites.  

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Note: The Bible calls the Babylonian king as Nebuchadnezzar or Nebuchadrezzar. His Akkadian name was NABU-KUDURRI-USUR.

 

WAS THE LAST SUPPER A PASSOVER SEDER?

 Rabbi Rifat Sonsino, Ph.D

Happy Passover to those who observe it.

This year Passover begins on Monday night, April 22, 2024. Some people claim that the Last Supper was a Passover Seder. Is that correct?

The term “Last Supper” refers to the final meal Jesus of Nazareth had with his disciples on the night before his death (for ex. I Cor 11: 23-25). This took place, assuming we are dealing with an historical fact, around 30 CE, when biblical Israelites, during Passover, were asked to offer a Pascal sacrifice, a lamb, in the temple of Jerusalem. On the other hand, the word “Seder” refers to a ritualized family meal that takes place on the eve of Passover, on the 14^th  of Nisan. This was created by the Rabbis after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in the year 70 CE by the Romans, way after the death of Jesus. The first reference to a  Seder is in the Mishnah ( See, Pesahim), compiled in Palestine around 225 CE.

The question is whether this Last Supper was also a Passover Seder.

Many people claim, yes it was. Thus, for example, Grace Theological Seminary  of Indiana affirms that “ Based on the historical context, we know that the Last Supper was a Passover Seder, and we can pinpoint which cup and which piece of bread Jesus was eating at the first communion” ( June 27, 2022, online).

Others have many doubts about it. Here are some of the reasons why I think the Last Supper was not a Passover Seder.

1.     Whereas the synoptic Gospels identify the Last Supper as a Passover meal  (for ex. see, Mark 14:12-16), John does not. In fact, he places the event before Passover (13:1-2). There was no Seder, as we know it,  during the days of Jesus.

2.     Jesus shared his meal only with his male disciples. The Passover Seder is a family dinner, with women and children being present.

3.     During the meal, Jesus and his disciples ate ‘bread’ (artos, in Greek; Mark 14: 22), whereas during Passover Jews are told to eat only “unleavened bread” ( azyma in Greek).

4.     The Passover Seder is held on the eve of 14^th of Nisan, In most of the Gospels, the Last Supper takes place on the 15^th of Nisan.

So, how can we interpret some of the Gospel’s claims?

We need to remember that the Gospels were written in Greek, between 70 CE and 100 CE,  after the death of Jesus and outside of the land of Israel. By that time, the editors’ memory had already started to fail. Most likely, early Christians wanted to connect the lessons of Passover, being the liberation of the Israelites from the slavery in Egypt, with the salvific message of Jesus’ death. I would argue that the Last Supper was held withing the general context of the feast of Passover as it was celebrated while the Jerusalem temple was still standing. It was a memorable Jewish meal, but not necessarily a Passover Seder.

For more details, see ABD, Vol 4, p.234 ff.

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